What arises.
Spontaneous or goal-directed inner speech that naturally occurs before, during or after sport participation.
- “My legs feel heavy.”
- “Why did I rush that pass?”
- “Stay patient; watch the ball.”
LEARN SPORT PSYCHOLOGY / MODULE 02Self-Talk
WORDS, MEANING & ACTION
Self-Talk
in Sport.
Self-talk is not simply “thinking positively.” It is a dynamic process shaped by the athlete, the situation, the words used and what those words do next.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this module, you should be able to:
- Define self-talk without reducing it to positive statements.
- Distinguish organic and strategic self-talk.
- Classify self-talk by form, content, function and interpretation.
- Explain the sport-specific model as a feedback process.
- Design and evaluate a task-relevant self-talk cue.
A WORKING DEFINITION
More than the words
inside an athlete’s head.
Self-talk involves verbalizations or statements addressed to the self. In sport, it may be spontaneous or deliberate, spoken or internal, and can influence attention, emotion, motivation and behaviour.
The key question is not only “Was it positive or negative?” but also “What prompted it, what did it mean to the athlete, and what followed?”
What is planned.
Predetermined cue words or statements deliberately selected to enhance performance or self-regulation.
- “Tall through the bend.”
- “Set—see—follow through.”
- “Breathe, scan, decide.”
DESCRIBE BEFORE YOU JUDGE
Six dimensions of
athlete self-talk.
A single phrase can differ in meaning and effect across athletes. Classification helps the practitioner ask better questions before recommending change.
Valence
Positive · Negative · NeutralThe apparent emotional direction of the words. Valence alone does not determine whether self-talk is useful.
Overtness
Overt · CovertWhether the self-talk is spoken aloud or experienced internally.
Person
First person · Second person“I can reset” and “You can reset” may create different psychological distance and effects.
Instruction
Assigned · Self-selectedA cue may be provided by a coach or developed by the athlete.
Function
Instructional · Motivational · RegulatoryThe intended purpose may be technique, effort, confidence, attention or emotional control.
Interpretation
Facilitative · Debilitative · MixedThe athlete’s meaning and response matter more than a simplistic positive-versus-negative label.
SCIENTIFIC CAUTION
Negative words are not
automatically harmful.
An athlete may use apparently negative self-talk to recognise an error, increase effort, discharge frustration or trigger a correction. A cheerful phrase may be ineffective if it is unbelievable, distracting or unrelated to the task.
WHAT THE EVIDENCE SAYS
Strategic self-talk can
support performance.
Moderate positive effect
A meta-analysis of 32 studies and 62 effect sizes reported a moderate positive effect of self-talk interventions on sport-task performance.
Hatzigeorgiadis et al. (2011) ↗Task and strategy matter
Effects vary with the task, intervention and study design. A useful cue must fit the performance demand and be practised.
View DOI ↗Not a universal cure
Evidence does not justify promising that one phrase will eliminate anxiety or guarantee performance. Emotion-regulation findings remain mixed in some areas.
Fritsch et al. (2022) ↗SPORT-SPECIFIC MODEL
Self-talk as a
feedback system.
Van Raalte, Vincent and Brewer’s model places self-talk inside a reciprocal relationship among personal factors, situations, behaviour and outcomes.
Personal factors
Beliefs, language, personality, current goals, previous experiences and the athlete’s interpretation of inner speech.
→Situational factors
Competition demands, score, fatigue, social environment, coaching communication and consequences of the moment.
→Self-talk
The dynamic words, fragments, images and internal dialogue that emerge or are deliberately used.
→Behaviour
Attention, body language, effort, tactical choice, emotional response and task execution.
→Outcomes & feedback
Performance consequences feed back into the athlete’s situation, beliefs and subsequent self-talk.
The sequence is not purely linear: behaviour and outcomes change the situation and influence what the athlete says next.
WHAT CAN SELF-TALK DO?
Four common
performance functions.
Guide technique
“High elbow” directs attention to one controllable movement feature.
Select a cue
“Watch the hips” narrows focus to relevant opponent information.
Mobilise effort
“One more” supports persistence during a demanding repetition.
Reset the response
“Breathe—next ball” helps interrupt rumination and return to the task.
TRINIDAD & TOBAGO APPLICATION
Listen for function,
not just wording.
These cases show why practitioners should assess context and consequences before replacing an athlete’s language.
After playing and missing
The athlete thinks, “I cannot read this bowler.” The phrase follows two missed deliveries and is accompanied by rushed footwork.
- Assessment
- Explore whether the statement expresses threat, provides information or triggers a technical change.
- Strategic cue
- “Pick the hand—stay still” links attention and technique.
After a turnover
The player repeatedly says, “That was stupid,” then continues watching the previous play rather than organising the centre pass.
- Assessment
- The problem is not only negative wording; it is prolonged attention to an uncontrollable past event.
- Strategic cue
- “Exhale—scan—offer” provides a three-step return to action.
APPLIED TOOL
Build a cue that
earns its place.
Effective self-talk is brief, believable, functional and practised under the conditions in which it must be used.
Identify the moment
When exactly is support needed—before execution, during effort or after disruption?
Define the function
Is the cue meant to guide technique, direct attention, mobilise effort or regulate emotion?
Use athlete language
Select words the athlete understands, accepts and can recall quickly.
Keep it actionable
Point toward what to do now rather than what to avoid.
Practise and evaluate
Test the cue in training, collect evidence and revise if it distracts or fails.
SELF-TALK AUDIT
From automatic phrase
to chosen response.
TRIGGER
What happened?→WORDS
What did I say?→MEANING
What did it signal?→RESPONSE
What followed?→REVISION
What would help?
What happened?→WORDS
What did I say?→MEANING
What did it signal?→RESPONSE
What followed?→REVISION
What would help?
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Interpret before intervening.
Why is classifying self-talk only as positive or negative insufficient?
Distinguish organic self-talk from a strategic self-talk cue.
Which function is served by the cue “eyes on the release point”?
Use the sport-specific model to explain how one error might influence the next action.
FOUNDATIONAL READING
Sources behind
the module.
- Hardy, J. (2006). Speaking clearly: A critical review of the self-talk literature. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 7, 81–97.
- Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Zourbanos, N., Galanis, E., & Theodorakis, Y. (2011). Self-talk and sports performance: A meta-analysis. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6, 348–356.
- Van Raalte, J. L., Vincent, A., & Brewer, B. W. (2016). Self-talk: Review and sport-specific model. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 22, 139–148.
- Latinjak, A. T., Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Comoutos, N., & Hardy, J. (2019). Speaking clearly … 10 years on: The case for an integrative perspective of self-talk in sport. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 8, 353–367.
- Fritsch, J., Feil, K., Jekauc, D., Latinjak, A. T., & Hatzigeorgiadis, A. (2022). The relationship between self-talk and affective processes in sports: A scoping review. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology.
PRACTISE THE CONCEPT
Find a cue for your next action
Examine what a phrase means to the athlete, select a useful function and test a believable cue.
15–20 minutes suggested
Self-study · no grade or certificate
Self-study · no grade or certificate
FICTIONAL CARIBBEAN TEACHING CASE
Start with the sporting situation.
A fictional netball shooter at a Tobago club trial misses twice and thinks, ‘Everyone expects me to miss again.’ The athlete then rushes the next setup. In training, the short cue ‘set, see, follow through’ has sometimes helped the shooter attend to the agreed routine.
Your learning goal: Explain the function of a self-talk cue and design a way to assess whether it is useful in a specific situation.
Evidence, with context
A meta-analysis supports benefits of self-talk interventions on average, with effects varying across tasks and intervention features. The wording, function, training and athlete's interpretation all matter; positive wording alone is not a complete explanation.
No phrase works for everyone. The netball scenario and cue are fictional teaching examples. A performance cue is not treatment for persistent psychological distress.
Check your understanding
0 of 3 questions checkedFROM UNDERSTANDING TO APPLICATION
Your practice plan
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Open a printable blank worksheet ↗Teaching collection: Dr. Marlon Melville
Activity updated 16 September 2026 · Privacy & saved work